ZEB compliment AYBD?

[Larry Wing]

I need to put together a wish list and wondered if the Zondervan Encyclopdia of the Bible would be a good compliment to Anchor or would it be redundant?

 

I have the Anchor and use it occasionally but do find it a little "dry" and sometime too wordy. I also have the ISBE Revised which I do use on a regular basis but sometimes it only stimulates more questions.

 

 

[Daniel Francis]

I think what you have already is a good complimentary fit. ISBE/Anchor I have the previous version of ZEB and find it less than stellar and the sample pages I had seen showed virtually no changes to the articles I looked at (there must be some new and greatly expanded but not where I was looking although it was only about 15 pages i compared and in those found only bibliographies updated really. A third animal to put on your wish list might be New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. I will share the old ZPEB I have and NISB on a subject Angel is the first word popped in my head so it will be it.

 

ANGEL (מַלְאָךְ, H4855; LXX and NT, ἄγγελος, G34, messenger).

Outline

I. Definition and description

A. Appellative terms

B. Spiritual beings

C. Human characteristics

II. Classification and names

A. Good angels

B. Bad angels

III. The angel of God (of Lord, of Jehovah)

A. Character and work distinctives

B. Preincarnate Logos

A. To announce and forewarn

B. To guide and instruct

C. To guard and defend

D. To minister in need

E. To assist in judgment

IV. Distribution of work

V. Angelology

I. Definition and description. In Scripture records, angels constitute a distinct order among the higher echelons of universal beings.

A. Apellative terms. The word angel comes from the Gr. word anggelos, meaning “messenger.” The corresponding Heb. word malakh likewise means “messenger.” Though these terms are sometimes used to designate human messengers, as a prophet (Hag 1:13) or a priest (Mal 2:7), differentiation is usually made from context. Other terms for angels were “sons of God” (Gen 6:2–4; Job 1:6; 2:1); “heavenly beings” (Pss 29:1; 89:6); “holy ones” (Ps 89:5, 7; Dan 4:13); “heavenly hosts” (Luke 2:13); and “hosts,” as in the familiar phrase “Lord of hosts,” originally meaning “Lord of armies” (1 Sam 1:11). The “seraphim” in Isaiah 6 obviously belong to the order of angels. Enoch spoke of “holy myriads” (Jude 14).

B. Spiritual beings. Angels are spirits, supernatural celestial beings. The author of Hebrews (1:14) asks, “Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to serve, for the sake of those who are to obtain salvation?” They are more than personifications of abstract good and evil, but are majestic beings whom God created to execute His will (Ps 148:2–5; Col 1:16). They are therefore active in a multiplicity of universal operations. They were created at a time which long antedates the creation of man (Job 38:7). Being spirits, angels can function as mediators between God and man. They can pass back and forth from the spiritual realm to the natural at will, unimpeded by physical boundaries (Acts 12:7). Angels are superhuman in strength: “Whereas angels, though greater in might and power, do not pronounce a reviling judgment upon them before the Lord” (2 Pet 2:11). Yet, they are not omnipotent (Ps 103:20; 2 Thess 1:7). Angels also are endowed with superior intellect and wisdom (2 Sam 14:17, 20), but are not omniscient (Matt 24:36; 1 Pet 1:12).

References to angels in common parlance sheds further light on their superhuman qualities: “And Achish made answer to David, ‘I know that you are as blameless in my sight as an angel of God’” (1 Sam 29:9). The wise woman from Tekoa who approached King David in disguise reflected on the superior wisdom of angels: “For my lord the king is like the angel of God to discern good and evil”; and, when David suspected that Joab was back of this ruse, she replied, “My lord has wisdom like the wisdom of the angel of God to know all things that are on the earth” (2 Sam 14:17, 20). Paul solemnly pronounced that “if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you a gospel contrary to that which we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Gal 1:8). Pursuing his appeal to the Galatians, he recalled their former kindness to him, saying “you…received me as an angel of God” (Gal 4:14). Warning the Corinthian Christians against “false prophets,” Paul said that their deception was “no wonder, for even Satan disguises himself as an angel of light” (2 Cor 11:14). In his masterpiece on love, Paul wrote of the eloquence of angels (1 Cor 13:1).

When refuting the Saduccees’ argument against angels and resurrection, Jesus cited that angels were not sexual and did not marry. He also pointed out their present superiority to man, but said that men in the resurrection “are equal to angels and are sons of God, being sons of the resurrection” (Luke 20:34ff.). Since Jesus was temporarily incarnate, the writer of Hebrews, quoting from the psalmist, declared, “Thou didst make him for a little while lower than the angels” (Heb 2:7; Ps 8:5), but that ultimately He would be supreme ruler. “For it was not to angels that God subjected the world to come” (Heb 2:5). And Paul asked, “Do you not know that we are to judge angels?” (1 Cor 6:3). Angels, then, are created beings with both human and divine characteristics.

C. Human characteristics. Angels consistently appeared in human form, with the exception of the seraphim (Isa 6:2). Contrarily, angels never appeared in subhuman form, as animals, birds, or material objects. Though the angel of the Lord spoke out of fire and cloud, and even caused a donkey to speak, He never identified Himself with either. Moreover, it should be observed that there is no Biblical record showing that an angel ever appeared to a wicked person or warned such a one of impending danger (Matt 24:37–39). Good angels always appeared to good people: Abraham, Moses, David, Daniel, Jesus, Peter, Paul, and others. Furthermore, angels always appeared as men, never as women or children, and they were always clothed. As the Christ identified Himself with man in flesh and blood in a historic generation, so angels identified themselves with man in form, language, and deed during brief visits. Thus God has repeatedly revealed Himself to man by establishing rapport in the medium of human perception. Many times angels were so disguised as men that they were not at first identified as angels. Abraham entertained “three men” as dinner guests. One remained to talk with him while the other “two angels” went on down to Sodom and spent the night with Lot, who thought that they were men (Gen 18:2; 19:1). Referring to this incident, the writer of Hebrews admonished his brethren “to show hospitality to strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares” (Heb 13:2). Just before Joshua’s attack on Jericho “a man stood before him with his drawn sword in his hand,” and he was God’s angel (Josh 5:13). Gideon did not know that his reassuring guest was an angel until he had served him a sumptuous meal of kid, cakes and broth and the angel had made a burnt offering of it (Judg 6:21, 22). “The angel of the Lord” made several appearances as “a man” to Manoah and his wife (13:21).

Occasionally angels displayed themselves as men with awesome appearances in countenance or clothing. The description given by Manoah’s wife was, “A man of God came to me, and his countenance was like the countenance of the angel of God, very terrible” (13:6). Women at the tomb reported that “two men stood by them in dazzling apparel” (Luke 24:4). As the Twelve witnessed Jesus’ ascension, “two men stood by them in white robes” (Acts 1:10). A most colorful description of an angel was given by Daniel who saw him while standing on the banks of the Tigris, “and behold, a man clothed in linen, whose loins were girded with gold of Uphaz. His body was like beryl, his face like the appearance of lightning, his eyes like flaming torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and the sound of his words like the noise of a multitude” (Dan 10:5, 6). On numerous other occasions angels were described as “a man” or with “the appearance of a man” (Ezek 40:3; Dan 10:18; Zech 2:1). In all these instances angels were soon, if not immediately, recognized as such. On other occasions angels were instantly recognized as angels, such as those seen by Balaam (Num 22:31); by David (2 Sam 24:17); by Zechariah and by Mary (Luke 1:11ff.; 26ff.).

II. Classification and names. Angels were created holy (Gen 1:31), and like men were given freedom of choice in attitude and action during a probationary period (Jude 6). Some chose to worship and serve God and some rebelled, creating two major divisions of angels.

A. Good angels. Good angels are called “the holy angels,” “the angels of God” (Luke 9:26; 12:8), and “God’s angels” (Heb 1:6; cf. Ps 103:20). Jesus spoke of “his angels” (Matt 16:27; 24:31), and “angels in heaven” (22:30). Paul referred to “his mighty angels” (2 Thess 1:7). Of these good angels only two are mentioned by name in the Bible. First, Michael is called the archangel by Jude (v. 9), while in the Book of Daniel (10:13) the messenger angel called him “one of the chief princes.” In Revelation (12:7, 8) Michael is portrayed as the commander of the army of good angels who defeated and expelled the bad angels from heaven. Second, Gabriel appears to be the chief messenger angel. He announced the forthcoming births of John the Baptist and of Jesus (Luke 1:13, 31). He also interpreted Daniel’s dream and on the same mission delivered God’s decree (Dan 8:15ff.). Josephus stated that the initiation oath of the Essenes included the pledge to preserve the names of angels. This interest in angels is illustrated in the DSS which show the emphasis the Qumran Essenes placed on the later Jewish writings in which angels figure prominently. The apocryphal Book of Enoch (see Gen 5:24), apparently the work of several Essene authors, contains an interesting list of angel names. Each of the names is followed by the phrase “one of the holy angels,” and for the sake of brevity is omitted here: “And these are the names of the holy angels who watch: Uriel…who is over the world and over Tartarus; Raphael…who is over the spirits of men; Raguel…who takes care of the world of the luminaries; Michael…is set over the best part of mankind and over chaos; Saraqael…is set over the spirits who sin in the spirit; Gabriel…is over paradise and the serpents and the cherubim; Remiel…whom God set over those who rise” (1 Enoch 20). Good angels will continue their blissful existence with God and His elect in the future age.

B. Bad angels. Bad angels consist of “the devil and his angels.” Their habitation was for some time in heaven, but they proved unfaithful to their trust and were driven out of heaven down to earth by the holy angels (Rev 12:7ff.). The apostasy of the angels took place before man’s creation, for “The Old Serpent” caused Adam and Eve to sin in the Garden of Eden. Out of the group of degenerate angels Satan emerged as the chief exponent of evil and wickedness. The Pharisees called him “Beelzebul, prince of demons” (Matt 12:24). Jesus said that the devil was a murderer, a liar, and the father of lies (John 8:44). Paul said that Christians are contending “against the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (Eph 6:12). Bad angels will in the end be cast “into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels” (Matt 25:41). The nebulous passage of Genesis 6:1–5, showing the increase of wickedness as man multiplied, is tr. in numerous ways. One of the oldest commentaries on the subject is an elaborate account of the same story in the apocryphal Book of Enoch. In its mythological account an attempt is made to solve the problem of sin by attributing it to marriages between lustful, degenerate angels and earthly women (1 Enoch 15:9–16).

III. The angel of God, also called “the angel of the Lord,” and “the angel of Jehovah,” stands out in distinct pre-eminence in the OT.

A. Character and distinctiveness. Though it was natural for the above terminology to be applied to any good angel (Matt 2:20, 23) there was definitely a theophanic mediator, unique and distinct. He introduced Himself as the Deity, and yet as distinct from God. He spoke face to face with early Bible characters as man to man, in whose form He appeared. “The angel of the Lord” gave aid and encouragement to Hagar, Sarai’s Egyp. slave girl, twice in her distress in the wilderness (Gen 16:7ff.; 21:17). On the second occasion He called from heaven, as He did on two occasions to Abraham: when He stopped his attempt to sacrifice Isaac and when He promised him countless descendants (22:11, 15ff.). He was spokesman of the “three men” who came to announce to Abraham the impending doom of Sodom and Gomorrah, and to foretell the birth of Isaac. After the other two left for Sodom, Abraham detained Him in his supplication to spare the city (18:1–19:1). The angel of the Lord accompanied Eliezer on his mission to Haran to get a wife for Isaac, through whom the chosen people were to be perpetuated (24:7, 40). He appeared to Jacob in a foreign land and identified Himself as “the God of Bethel,” and instructed him to go home (31:11–13). Later, after wrestling with Him, Jacob said, “I have seen God face to face” (32:24–30). It was “the angel of the Lord” who appeared to Moses in the burning bush and identified Himself as “the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” (Exod 3:6). The same angel later guided and guarded the Israelites in their exodus from Egypt (13:21, 22; 14:19). He frequently talked to Moses on the wilderness journey, and delivered the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai (chs. 19, 20). He blocked the road for Balaam on a questionable mission (Num 22:22); and identified Himself as “commander of the army of the Lord” to Joshua at the beginning of the conquest of the Promised Land (Josh 5:14; 6:2). Early in the period of the judges, when the Israelites were forsaking God, the angel of the Lord spoke to them at Bochim (Bethel ? Judg 2:1–5). He later appeared to Gideon to commission him for military leadership (6:11–14). Then He appeared to Manoah and his wife to promise them a son, Samson (ch. 13). He appeared to David at the threshing floor of Ornan where He stopped the destroying angel; and afterward He commanded the prophet Gad to order David to build an altar on that rock (1 Chron 21:15, 18, 27). The angel of the Lord received a report from the angels who patrolled the earth and then asked God to have mercy on Jerusalem (Ezek 1:10–13).

B. Pre-incarnate Logos. The question of identity of “the angel of God” has aroused an intriguing interest in Bible students. The view in which most concur is that He is a distinct personal self-manifestation of God, who may be called the incarnate Logos. The reference in Judges 2:1 shows clearly that “the angel of the Lord” is God in His self-manifestation. This is also the case with similar patriarchal passages dealing with Abraham, Jacob, and Moses. The angel whom David saw at the threshing floor was superior in rank to the destroying angel whom He ordered to stop. He later spoke with divine authority concerning the building of the altar on the spot. He was of the angelic order, but was superior to other angels. He always had the same specific personality, distinguishable from angels in general. For instance, He was not restricted to executing a single order, but, like Jesus, He spoke with authority as though He were God Himself. Only the Logos, or some other manifest personification of God, would be able to do that. John declared that the Logos “was in the beginning with God” and that He “was God”; that He was instrumental in the Creation; and, that “The Logos became flesh and dwelt among us” (John 1:1–14). It is interesting to note that this angel did not appear on earth while Jesus was in the flesh. The angel who announced Jesus’ birth to the shepherds was prob. Gabriel, but was referred to only as “an angel of the Lord” (Luke 2:9). Other resemblances between “the angel of the Lord” and Jesus support the thesis that He was the preincarnate Logos. The wife of Manoah reported that His countenance was “very terrible”; and, His appearance to David and to Balaam was terrifying. He appeared to Moses in the midst of a fire, and vanished from Gideon with the holocaust fire. Daniel sa id His eyes were like flaming torches, and Ezekiel saw a brightness “like the appearance of fire” around one in “human form” seated on a throne (Dan 10:6; Ezek 1:26ff.). In comparison to these descriptions one can find striking similarities in John’s vision of Jesus, a part of which is, “his eyes were like a flame of fire, his feet were like burnished bronze, refined as in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of many waters” (Rev 1:14, 16). It is amazing how often the appearance of “the angel of the Lord” marked a turning point in history, or sparked the innovation of some project with long-lasting consequences. Some examples are the founding of the chosen race by or through Abraham; deliverance of the same race from Egypt; founding a theocracy at Mt. Sinai; leading an Israelite settlement into the Promised Land; laying foundation for Solomon’s Temple by ordering an altar built on Ornan’s threshing floor rock; supporting Elijah in preserving monotheism; and protecting His elect in the Babylonian captivity. Another characteristic of the deity exercised by “the angel of God” was the authority to forgive sins (Exod 23:21). In summary, “the angel of the Lord” was the guardian angel of the chosen race. The following words in Isaiah’s prophecy are both predictive and reflective: “In all their affliction he was afflicted, and the angel of his presence saved them; in his love and in his pity he redeemed them; he lifted them up and carried them all the days of old” (63:9).

IV. Distribution of work. In general the work of angels is to execute God’s universal will in heaven and on earth. They praise, reverence, and obey God. They promote divine goodness, and they are mediators of God’s love and good will to man. With their relation to man, the writer of Hebrews states tersely the role of angels in his question: “Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to serve, for the sake of those who are to obtain salvation?” (1:14). Their service is rendered throughout a wide distribution of duties, observed in the following categories.

A. To announce and forewarn. Angels announced beforehand the births of some of God’s select servants. An angel announced in advance to Abraham and Sarai the conception and birth of their son Isaac (Gen 18:9f.). Likewise, an angel foretold the birth of Samson to his parents, Manoah and his wife (Judg 13:2–24). Gabriel announced the birth of John the Baptist to his father Zechariah before his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, and the birth of Jesus to Mary before she was with child (Luke 1:13, 30). On the night of Jesus’ birth, that momentous event was announced by an angel to the shepherds and immediately was joined by a chorus of heavenly angels praising God and blessing man (Luke 2:8–15).

Angels not only announced blessed events, but on occasions forewarned the righteous of imminent danger or threatening disaster. Abraham and Lot were forewarned by angels of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 18:16–19:29). Joseph was warned by an angel to “take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there till I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him” (Matt 2:13). Gabriel revealed future events involving God’s judgment to the prophet Daniel: “He said, ‘Behold, I will make known to you what shall be at the latter end of the indignation; for it pertains to the appointed time of the end’” (Dan 8:19). Similarly, an angel revealed to John on Patmos in a kaleidoscope of visions some eschatological scenes including the Resurrection, the Judgment, and New Jerusalem (Rev 1–22).

B. To guide and instruct. From the day that Abraham left his home in Ur of the Chaldees until Joshua settled the tribes of Israel in Canaan, there is the manifest implication that the chosen people were divinely led. Always and everywhere during the nomadic wandering of the patriarchs, the sojourn in Egypt, and the wilderness tour to the Promised Land, an angel, visible or invisible, seemed to be ever near. Abraham was repeatedly in conversation with angels, and when he sent his servant Eliezer to Mesopotamia to get a wife for Isaac he assured him that God “will send his angel with you” (Gen 24:7, 40). Later, when Jacob was on a similar mission for himself, he had a marvelous dream of angels ascending and descending a ladder reaching from earth to heaven, with the Lord standing above and giving the reassurance, “I am with you and will keep you wherever you go, and will bring you back to this land; for I will not leave you until I have done that which I have spoken to you” (28:12–15). When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt, “the angel of God who went before the host of Israel moved and went behind them” (Exod 14:19). Subsequently Moses reassured the Israelites with God’s promise, “Behold, I send an angel before you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place which I have prepared” (23:20). He bolstered this promise by recalling that the Lord “sent an angel and brought us forth out of Egypt” (Num 20:16). Directing and instructing were kindred functions, often combined in the same angelic mission. The most comprehensive instruction in the OT was the law received by Moses from an angel on Mt. Sinai. When Stephen was on trial before the Sanhedrin, he mentioned in his survey of Israel’s history, “the angel who spoke to him (Moses) at Mount Sinai,” and proceeded to charge the rulers that they had “received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it” (Acts 7:38, 53). Paul said that the law “was ordained by angels through an intermediary” (Gal 3:19). Elihu envisioned “an angel, a mediator…to declare to man what is right for him” (Job 33:23). An angel gave Manoah’s wife instructions for her personal care during pregnancy and for rearing her son Samson (Judg 13:3–5). An angel informed Joseph of the nature of Mary’s conception and instructed him to marry her (Matt 1:20f.). An angel appeared to the centurion Cornelius at Caesarea and told him to “send men to Joppa, and bring one Simon who is called Peter,” and gave direction where to find him (Acts 10:3–5). An angel instructed Philip to leave Samaria and go to a desert place on the Jerusalem-Gaza road, where later he was to learn the purpose of the mission (8:26ff.). Paul repeatedly received divine instruction, mediated, at least at times, by angels. One striking example was while in a storm at sea an angel stood by Paul and assured him of his safety, and that of the crew, and told him that he was yet to stand before Caesar (27:23f.). Angels also interpreted visions for Zechariah, Daniel, and John (Zech 1:9, 19; Dan 7:16; Rev 17:7).

C. To guard and defend. The belief in guardian angels is an old one and has scriptural basis. “The angel of the LORD encamps around those who fear him, and delivers them” (Ps 34:7). An angel guarded Jacob during his twenty years in Haran and brought him safely home to Canaan (Gen 32:24ff.). An angel, by cloud and fire, defended Israel from Egypt during the Exodus (Exod 14:19f.). When Moab and Midian allied to bring a curse of destruction on Israel, their plan was aborted by an angel who made Balaam revise his prophecy and rewrite his sermon (Num 22). Reminiscent of Jacob’s experience in meeting “God’s army” of angels on returning to Canaan was that of Joshua when he met the “commander of the army of the Lord” who joined him as an ally at the beginning of the conquest of Canaan (Gen 32:1f.; Josh 5:14). In David’s thanksgiving psalm he sang, “Bless the LORD, O you his angels, you mighty ones who do his word” (Ps 103:20). God’s army stood by to defend Elisha and his servant (2 Kings 6:17). The writer of Chronicles, profoundly impressed with the “mighty men of valor” who continued to come to David’s support, said, “From day to day men kept coming to David to help him, until there was a great army, like an army of God” (1 Chron 12:22). An angel prevented Abraham from committing murder and losing his only son of promise, and at the same time guarded the life of Isaac (Gen 22:9–12). An angel guarded the lives of Daniel and the three young Hebrews against the sentences of death pronounced by powerful rulers (Dan 3:28; 6:22). On the subject of guardian angels for children, Jesus warned, “See that you do not despise one of these little ones; for I tell you that in heaven their angels always be hold the face of my Father who is in heaven” (Matt 18:10). The psalmist, after listing some of the worst perils that threaten man, pointed to God as his refuge and declared, “he will give his angels charge of you to guard you in all your ways” (Ps 91:11). The angel who talked with Daniel said that he had been the guardian angel of Darius. He had just stated that Michael was the guardian angel of Daniel, prob. in the broader sense of the Jews, and that he and Michael had contended with the prince (angel) of Persia and that later the prince of Greece would come (Dan 10:13–11:1). Obviously, then, nations and cities, as well as individuals, have guardian angels. To this may also be added churches, as seen by the seven angels respectively assigned to the seven churches of Asia Minor (Rev 2; 3).

In the guardianship of God’s people, angels were sometimes engaged in militant action against their enemies. “The destroyer,” the angel of death, slew the first-born of the Egyptians to force the release of the Israelites from the bondage of slavery (Exod 12:23, 29). When Sennacherib’s army threatened the destruction of Jerusalem in the days of King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah, “that night the angel of the Lord went forth, and slew a hundred and eighty-five thousand in the camp of the Assyrians” (2 Kings 19:35). The most enlightening and most reassuring comment on angelic guardianship was spoken by Jesus Himself at the time of His arrest in the Garden of Gethsemane. Peter had just attempted a valiant defense of Jesus by wielding his sword with a degree of effectiveness, when Jesus disarmed him and uttered amazing words of reassurance: “Do you think that I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send me more than twelve legions of angels?” (Matt 26:53).

D. To minister in need. All angelic service to man is ministering in some form to man’s needs. Angels are mediators of God’s love and good will to men, and their mission is always benevolent, either immediately or ultimately. As already seen, angels administered to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in times of critical need. Nor did angelic service end with men of honorable estate, but with tender compassion ministered necessary aid to the slave girl, Hagar, and her young boy, Ishmael, when they were threatened with thirst and starvation in the wilderness (Gen 21:17f.). When the Israelites were sorely oppressed by the taskmaster’s lash and seemingly hopeless Egyp. bondage, the angel of the Lord came to Moses and said, “I have seen the affliction of my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry because of their taskmasters; I know their sufferings, and I have come…to deliver them” (Exod 3:7f.). When Elijah, with exhaustion, fear, and loneliness, fell asleep under a broom tree in the desert, a celestial being ministered to his needs. An angel awoke him and served him with a hot cake and a jar of water, which provided him with strength for a long journey ahead (1 Kings 19:5–7). After Jesus had spent forty days in the wilderness, threatened by wild beasts, weakened by fasting, and harassed by the devil, “the angels ministered to him” (Mark 1:13). In His agony, loneliness, and sorrow in Gethsemane “there appeared to him an angel from heaven, strengthening him” (Luke 22:43). After Jesus had been laid in the tomb, “an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled back the stone, and sat upon it” (Matt 28:2). Peter was delivered from chains and prison by an angel, just as earlier “at night an angel of the Lord opened the prison doors and brought” the apostles out and comma nded them to go into the Temple and preach (Acts 5:19; 12:6–11).

E. To assist in judgment. Finally, angels assist in God’s judgment. Enough instances are on record to show that this is continually being done in human history. Some have already been mentioned. Another striking example of this is the death of Herod Agrippa: “Immediately an angel of the Lord smote him, because he did not give God the glory; and he was eaten by worms and died” (Acts 12:23). Some examples of their roles in judgment are shown in the visions of John on Patmos. One angel with great authority and amazing splendor proclaimed the fall of Rome, while a mighty angel threw a large stone into the sea, symbolizing the fall of Rome (Rev 18:1, 21). In the outset of the war in which Christ and His heavenly armies defeated the beast and his cohorts, an angel stood in the sun and summoned carrion fowl to eat the corpses of God’s enemies to be slain in the conflict (19:17f.). Another angel bound Satan and threw him into the pit (20:1–3). Jesus said to Nathanael that what Jacob had seen in a vision he would now see in reality in Jesus’ ministry, “you will see heaven opened, and the angels of God ascending and descending upon the Son of man” (John 1:51). Later, Jesus declared to His audience that, “whoever is ashamed of me and of my words, of him will the Son of man be ashamed when he comes in his glory and the glory of the Father and of the holy angels” (Luke 9:26). Similarly He said, “every one who acknowledges me before men, the Son of man will also acknowledge before the angels of God; but he who denies me before men will be denied before the angels of God” (12:8, 9). Moreover, Jesus said that angels would attend Him on His Second Coming. “When the Son of man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, then he will sit on his glorious throne” a nd judge all the nations (Matt 25:31). When he comes, “he will send out his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to the other” (24:31; cf. Mark 13:27). Doubtless the major function of angels in the age to come is to praise God continually (Rev 19:1–3; Luke 2:13f.).

V. Angelology. Angels are referred to with candor and credulity from Genesis to Revelation, from Abraham “by the oaks of Mamre” to John “on the island called Patmos.” Their appearances are reported at various places in Bible lands over more than 2,000 years. Scripture writers assume the existence of angels and, therefore, make no attempt to prove it. The earliest archeological evidence of angels to date appears on the stele of Ur-Nammus, c. 2250 B.C., where angels are seen flying over the head of this king while in prayer. Since Abraham came on the scene in this area soon after that time, he doubtless was acquainted with angelology from youth and saw clearly that it had a natural place in the monotheism which he fostered. Though angelology was mixed with mythology in the primitive religions, and in the polytheism of Israel’s neighbors, the chosen people did not borrow distorted concepts from them only to be sloughed off with the maturation of their own religion. Contrarily, the records of angels increases as Biblical history unfolds. They were sporadic throughout the OT until near its close. During the Babylonian captivity angels became more evident. It is the opinion of Bible scholars generally that Zoroastrianism made a generous contribution to Jewish angelology. Anyway, the NT opens with angel activity and continues so to its end. The visible activity of angels has been superseded by the Holy Spirit, who now guides Christians “into all the truth” (John 16:13).

BIBLIOGRAPHY J. H. Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (1889), 5f., 135, 464f.; J. M. Adams, Biblical Backgrounds (1934), 36–41; F. F. Bruce, Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls (1956), 116, 120; N. K. Gottwald, A Light to the Nations (1959), 26, 260, 440, 480, 525, 531f.; B. Davies, Student’s Hebrew Lexicon (1960), 354f.; G. Gordh, Christian Faith and Its Cultural Expression (1962), 52, 118, 161f., 188; R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel (1962), 112, 277, 298, 306, 309, 332, 355, 407, 426, 450; C. M. Connick, Jesus: The Man, The Mission, The Message (1963), 5, 102; H. M. Buck, People of the Lord (1966), 540; E. W. K. Mould, Essentials of Bible History (1966), 459, 506, 512–516.

G. B. FUNDERBURK

ZPEB, s.v. “ANGEL,” n.p.

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ANGEL [מַלְאַךְ malʾakh; ἄγγελος angelos]. While Hebrew malʾakh and Greek angelos designate messengers both human and heavenly, in the English Bible, angels are spiritual beings. Despite considerable angelological development, often speculative, in the literature of the late Second Temple period, the general contours of NT angelology derive from ideas in earlier literature.

A. Early Angelology

1. Terminology

2. General concepts

3. An angel of Yahweh

4. The heavenly council

5. The army of Yahweh

6. Evil angels

B. The Exile and Beyond: A Developing Angelology

1. Ezekiel

2. Zechariah

3. Terminology

4. Relationship to early Old Testament literature

5. Naming and rank of angels

6. Appearance and nature of angels

7. Good and evil angels

8. Eschatological functions of angels

9. Fellowship with angels

C. Angels in the New Testament

1. New Testament terminology

2. Appearance and nature of angels

3. Roles in relation to the kingdom of God

a. Angels and the person and work of Jesus

b. Angels, humans, and the gospel

c. Revelation by angels

d. Evil angels

e. Angels and judgment

Bibliography

A. Early Angelology

Though often mentioned elsewhere in the OT, angels are especially prominent in Genesis and Judges, and in Ezekiel and Zechariah from the exilic period. The importance of angels in Genesis and Judges indicates that belief in angels is ancient.

1. Terminology

Malʾakh, cognate with lʾk (“to send”) in several Semitic languages, means “a messenger.” Of over 200 occurrences in the OT, about half designate humans (e.g., Gen 32:3; Num 20:14; Nah 2:13 [Heb. 2:14]), and half spiritual beings, clearly distinguished in English as angels (e.g., Gen 16:7; Exod 32:34; 1 Kgs 13:18). The LXX translated malʾakh with angelos for both humans and angels. Sometimes angelos was also used when other Hebrew expressions such as bene haʾelohim (בְנֵי הֲאֶלֹהִים, “sons of God”) were understood to mean angels (e.g., Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; NRSV, heavenly beings). Similarly, ʾelohim (אֵלֹהִים, “gods”), was interpreted as angels in Ps 138:1 . The English word angel comes from the term angelos used in the LXX to designate heavenly beings.

A rich vocabulary developed along with a growing understanding of the nature and roles of angels. Designations such as angel of the Lord (or Yahweh, Gen 16:11; Judg 6:11); angel of God (Gen 21:17; 2 Sam 14:17); heavenly beings (beneʾ haʾelohim, sons of God; Job 1:6; 2:1; Pss 29:1; [Heb. 89:6]) and divine beings (ʾelohim, gods Ps 8:5 [Heb. 8:6]; 82:1; 97:7) indicate angels’ special connection to Yahweh. Holy ones (Job 5:1; Ps 89:5–7; Heb 6–8) implies purity and dedication to God.

Angels serve by doing God’s will (Ps 103:1). They are called mighty (Ps 78:25), the host of heaven 1 Kgs 22:19), Yahweh’s hosts (Josh 5:14–15; Pss 103:21; 148:2), and the host of the height (NRSV, host of heaven, Isa 24:21). Hosts (tsiveʾoth צִבְאוֹת) is a military term and can designate Israel’s armies (Exod 12:41), the stars (tsevaʾ [צְבָא]; Deut 4:19), and angels (1 Kgs 22:19). The common title “Yahweh of hosts” (yhwh tsevaʾoth; 1 Sam 17:45; 1 Chr 11:9) refers in part to Yahweh’s army of innumerable angels, and the title, “commander (sar שַׂר) of the army (or host) of the Lord” (Josh 5:14–15) indicates hierarchical rank.

The winged Seraphim (Isa 6:2, 6, 7) and cherubim (Exod 25:20; Ezek 10:2, 15) are classes of heavenly beings distinguishable from angels in general. While in early usage malʾakh meant messenger, later it was used for heavenly beings in general.

2. General concepts

Angels belong to heaven (Gen 28:12; Job 2:1–2; Ps 148:1–2; Isa 24:21), but can come to earth as Yahweh’s servants, indistinguishable from humans. (They do not fly, contrary to common representation in Christian art.) Abraham “saw three men” (Gen 18:2). Yet the narrative states that Abraham negotiates directly with Yahweh concerning Sodom’s fate (Gen 18:22–33). How or when he knew his visitors were not human is unclear. Jacob wrestled with “a man” (Gen 32:24, 30), while Gideon recognized his visitor’s identity only when the angel made fire consume the meal Gideon prepared (Judg 6:21–22). Joshua, seeing a man with sword in hand, had to be told this was the commander of Yahweh’s army (Josh 5:13–15). Manoah and his wife initially were unaware they were speaking with an angel (Judg 13:16, 19–20).

Angels are creatures (Ps 148:1–6). As mighty ones (gibbore khoakh [גִּבֹּרֵי כֹחַ]; Ps 103:20) doing God’s bidding, they surpass humans in power and wisdom (2 Sam 14:17, 20). But despite their superiority to humans, angels are not to be worshiped (Josh 5:14); but they worship Yahweh (Pss 29:1–2; 103:21; 148:2). While usually only one or two encounter humans, angels are so numerous they are “the host of heaven” (1 Kgs 22:19; Pss 103:19–21; 148:2) and “God’s camp” (Gen 32:1–2 [Heb. 32:2–3]). Myriads come with Yahweh from Sinai (Deut 33:2; Ps 68:17 [Heb. 68:18]).

Angels were primarily messengers, sometimes reporting to God about humans (Job 1:6; 2:1), but typically conveying messages from Yahweh. An angel promised Hagar many descendants (Gen 16:7–16; 21:17–19), instructed Abraham not to harm Isaac (Gen 22:11–14), and told Jacob to leave Laban (Gen 31:11–13). Angels announced Sodom’s destruction (Gen 19:12–13) and the births of Isaac (Gen 18:10) and Samson (Judg 13:3). An angel was present at Moses’ call to lead Israel out of Egypt (Exod 3:2). The commander of Yahweh’s army confronted Joshua before the attack on Jericho (Josh 5:13–15), and an angel told Gideon Yahweh would deliver Israel from Midian (Judg 6). Elijah was given a message for Samaria (2 Kgs 1:3–4).

Beyond this basic role, angels acted more broadly as Yahweh’s envoys, accomplishing specific tasks. The pestilence Yahweh sent following David’s sin was executed by an angel (2 Sam 24:16–17), as was the rout of the Assyrians (2 Kgs 19:35). Consequently, angels can be called “destroying angels” (Ps 78:49).

Angels also perform sustaining roles, as when they provide guidance on journeys; e.g., in the search for a wife for Isaac (Gen 24:7). Elijah, fleeing from Jezebel, was given sustenance by an angel (1 Kgs 19:5–8). The angel Raphael accompanied Tobias in his journey to find a wife (Tob 5:1–12:22) and protected Tobias from a demon that intended to kill him (Tob 8:1–3). Angels also protected the whole nation in its exodus journey (Exod 23:20, 23; 32:34; 33:2). Yahweh had allocated a patron angel over each nation in the distribution of territories, according to Deut 32:8 (LXX; and 4Q37 XII, 14, where ʾelohim, gods, corresponds to the LXX, angeloi, against Heb. bene yisraʾel, sons of Israel). Angels provide protection for the righteous in general (Ps 34:7 [Heb. 34:8]; Ps 91:11), for Israel in its wilderness journey (Exod 23:20), and for individuals such as Jacob (Gen 48:16–17).

3. An angel of Yahweh

The phrase malʾakh yhwh (either “an angel of Yahweh” or “the angel of Yahweh”) occurs fifty times in the OT, mostly in the earlier writings (e.g., Gen 16:7–11; 22:11; Exod 3:2; Num 22:22–35; Judg 2:1; 5:23; 2 Sam 24:16–17; 1 Kgs 19:5–7; 2 Kgs 1:1–16; 1 Chr 21:12–30; Ps 34:7 [Heb. 34:8]; Isa 37:36; Zech 1:11–12). The translation “an angel of the Lord” is preferable, despite a long-standing contrary tradition.

Some narratives show apparent merging of the angel and Yahweh, contrary to the normally clear distinction between messengers and those sending them. When Yahweh appeared to Abraham he saw three “men” (Gen 18:1–2). Then, the visitors having eaten, Yahweh spoke to Abraham (Gen 18:13), and also said he would go to Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 18:21). Meanwhile, two of the men left for Sodom (Gen 18:22; 19:1), while Abraham continued speaking with Yahweh (Gen 18:23–33). Similar blurring occurs elsewhere (e.g., Judg 6:11–23; 13:3–23; Num 22:22–35). Various explanations have been suggested. Perhaps “angel” has been interpolated into the text out of embarrassment that Yahweh should seem to communicate directly with humans. Perhaps the activity of Yahweh’s emissary is difficult to distinguish from his personal activity. Perhaps these occasions were theophanies. One effect of the ambiguity is that there can be no doubt Yahweh has spoken. Even while Yahweh’s transcendence is maintained, humans meet Yahweh through angelic mediation.

4. The heavenly council

Heavenly angels do more than worship God. Yahweh has his divine council, corresponding to the ANE political organization of a king assisted by a royal court. Yahweh is praised “in the assembly of the holy ones” (biqhal qedhoshim [בִּקְהַל קְדשִׁים]; Ps 89:5 [Heb. 89:6]) and “feared in the council of the holy ones” (besodh qedhoshim [בְּסוֹד קְדשִׁים]; Ps 89:7 [Heb. 89:8]). Prophets could be privy to council decisions. Thus Jeremiah laments how prophets have not stood in Yahweh’s council (besodh yhwh; Jer 23:18) and so not proclaimed his words (Jer 23:22). Micaiah saw Yahweh enthroned with “the host of heaven” (tsevaʾ hashamayim צְבָא הַשָּׁמַיִם) around him. The council deliberated about who would entice Ahab into battle, and eventually Yahweh commissioned one volunteer to asssist (1 Kgs 22:19–23). Yahweh pronounces judgment “in the divine council” (baʿadhath-ʾel בַּעֲדַתאֵל) “in the midst of the gods” (beqerev ʾelohim [בְּקֶרֶב אֵלהִים]; Ps 82:1).

5. The army of Yahweh

God is called “Yahweh of hosts” or “armies” (yhwh tsevaʾoth) over 240 times. Yahweh is head of Israel’s armies (1 Sam 17:45), all the heavenly bodies (Deut 4:19), and the angelic host of heaven (1 Kgs 22:19), which is accountable to him (Isa 24:21–22). In Deut 33:2–3, despite textual issues, the sense seems to be that Yahweh comes from Sinai to Israel, accompanied by “myriads of holy ones,” marching under his orders. Similarly, Yahweh, the warrior, advances victorious with thousands of chariots (Ps 68:17 [Heb. 68:18]). Military imagery is also used when the “commander of the army of the Lord” (sar tsevaʾ yhwh, Josh 5:14) confronts Joshua prior to Israel’s conquest of Jericho. The angelic army has a critical role in certain later writings (1QM 13 XIII, 10–12; 1 En. 1:8–9; Rev 12:7).

6. Evil angels

Angels are essentially good, though not always perfect (Job 4:18). They praise Yahweh and fulfill Yahweh’s commissions on earth. They can act against humans, as when Yahweh sent “destroying angels” against Egypt (malʾakhe raʿim [מַלְאֲכֵי רָעִים]; Ps 78:49; compare LXX, angelōn ponērōn [ἀγγελῶν πονηρῶν], “evil angels”). The psalmist prayed that an angel might pursue his enemies (Ps 35:5–6). An “evil spirit” from Yahweh came upon Saul (1 Sam 16:14–23) and a “lying spirit” was sent to Ahab’s prophets (1 Kgs 22:19–23). These angels are not intrinsically evil, but are perceived as bringing evil. In Exod 4:24, Yahweh tried to kill Moses, but later tradition modified this to say it was an angel (LXX) or the evil spirit Mastemah (Jub. 48:2–4; see DEMON). Similarly, in 1 Chr 21:1, an angelic “adversary” incites David to conduct a census. The word satan (שָׂטָן) does not designate the wicked angel, “Satan,” of later texts, but designates human adversaries (1 Kgs 11:14), and the angel who opposed Balaam (Num 22:22, 32). When the angels presented themselves to Yahweh, it was “the adversary” (hassatan [הַשָּׂטָן]; Job 1:6–2:7) who questioned Job’s integrity. The same is true in the later Zech 3:1–2 .

B. The Exile and Beyond: A Developing Angelology

Typically, the canonical prophets received communication directly from Yahweh, rather than by angelic mediation. This contrasts with many writings from the exile through the late Second Temple period. For example, in the pre-exilic Amos and exilic Jeremiah, angels are absent, while “Thus says the Lord,” “says the Lord,” and (in Jeremiah) “the word of the Lord came to me” are common. Parts of Ezekiel are similar, and outside of Zechariah’s visions, all three expressions occur frequently. In the other prophets, angels feature only when events from Israel’s past are recalled (Isa 37:6; 63:9; Hos 12:4 [Heb. 12:5]), and with the seraphim in Isaiah’s vision (Isa 6:1–7). Ezekiel and Zechariah are examples of transition between earlier angelology and developments in late Second Temple Judaism, combining the tradition of Yahweh’s direct word with revelation mediated by angels.

The Babylonian exile precipitated unprecedented national crisis for Yahweh’s covenant people, with loss of the land, Jerusalem, and the Temple. Writings from the exile and beyond draw upon a variety of genres to respond to this crisis, including the apocalypse, which offered reassurance for a devastated nation, using the heavenly journey and its messages from Yahweh’s presence through a heavenly guide. Apocalypses such as 1–2 Enoch, and 4 Ezra became increasingly important, offering certainty in the midst of despair by conveying a cosmic perspective from the throne room of Yahweh. References to angels occur unevenly in the centuries before and after the start of the Christian era literature, with few or none in Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, 2 Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Susanna, 1–4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, and Psalms of Solomon. By contrast, angels are prominent in Tobit, Jubilees, 4 Ezra, 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and much Qumran sectarian literature. Diverse theological and sociological concerns were involved.

1. Ezekiel

When the heavens opened for Ezekiel, he saw “visions of God” (Ezek 1:1) and “the likeness of the glory of the Lord” (Ezek 1:28). Burning coals were in the midst of four cherubim (Ezek 10:2, 20)—shining, winged living creatures with both human and animal features (Ezek 1:5–11)—moving in unison with the four spectacular wheels of the divine chariot throne. This vision set the context for various revelations received by Ezekiel through angelic mediation.

In the first series of visions, Ezekiel saw “a man clothed in linen, with a writing case” (Ezek 8:2; 9:2). The guide conducted Ezekiel to various locations associated with the Temple (Ezek 8:7, 14, 16), telling him to make certain observations and asking many questions (Ezek 8:6, 12, 15, 17). Those in Jerusalem who had lamented the abominations committed there were marked by the man with the writing case so they would be safe in the coming slaughter (Ezek 9:3–6). These features recur in later apocalypses such as 1 Enoch.

In the second series, Ezekiel was brought by Yahweh to Israel. His guide was shining and bronzelike, “with a linen cord and a measuring reed” (Ezek 40:3) and meticulously measured the temple and its precincts (Ezek 40:1–44:5). Yahweh’s glory filled the Temple (Ezek 44:4) and assured restoration.

2. Zechariah

Malʾakh (angel) occurs eighteen times, and apart from Zech 12:8, all occur in the eight visions of Zech 1–6 concerning the defeat of the Jews’ enemies (Zech 1:18–21 [Heb. 2:1–4]), judgment (Zech 5:1–4), exile (Zech 5:5–11), and future peace and prosperity for Yahweh’s people and Jerusalem (Zech 1:7–17; 2:1–5; 3:1–10; 4:1–14; 6:1–8). Four angelic horsemen patrolled the earth and reported to the angel assisting the prophet, evoking the idea of the angelic army. Zechariah visited the heavenly council (Zech 3:1–10) when it dealt with a charge of impurity against the high priest, Joshua, brought by an accusing angel (hassatan, the adversary, rather than the NRSV’s “Satan”). Features typical of apocalypses include an angelic intermediary and symbolism (e.g., horses, Zech 1:8; a lampstand and olive trees, Zech 4:1–3; horns, Zech 1:18–19). The seer’s angelic guide (Zech 3:1; 5:5) asked questions, supplied the interpretations (Zech 5:1–3), and answered queries from the seer (Zech 5:5–6). Again, such information was reassuring, since it came from an angel close to Yahweh.

3. Terminology

Extensive angelological development resulted in a proliferation of terminology in this period. Angels are frequently spirits (rukhoth [רֻחוֹת]; 1QS III, 18; 1 En. 15:4; Jub. 1:25; 2:2; T. Levi 4:1; 4 Ezra 6:41), as well as spirits of holiness (rkhy qdsh [רחי קדש]; 1QHa XVI, 12), spirits of heaven (1 En. 15:10) and spirits of truth (rkhy ʾmth [רחי אמת]; 1QS IV, 23). Similarly, host is combined with other terms, as in host of knowledge (tsbʾ dʿth [צבא דעת]; 1QHa XXI, 8) and everlasting host (tsbʾ ʿdh [צבא עד]; 1QHa XIX, 13). Angels are holy ones (qdshym; Zech 14:5; 1 En. 1:9), holy watchers (Dan 4:13; ʿr wqdsh [ער וקדש]; 1 En. 15:9) and host of holy ones (tsbʾ qwdshym; 1QHa XI, 22). Other epithets include honored ones (nkbdym [נכבדים]; 1QHa XVIII, 8; 2 En. 21:1, 3), princes (srym [שרים]; 4Q400 3 II, 2), priests (khnym [כהנים]; 4Q403 1 II, 21), authorities (exousia [ἐξουσία]; T. Levi 3:8; 1 En. 61:10), powers (dynamis [δύναμις]; 2 En. 20:1), and thrones (thronos [θρόνος]; T. Levi 3:8; 2 En. 20:1). In addition to cherubim and seraphim, there are spiritual beings called ʾofannim (1 En. 61:10; 71:7), related to the chariot wheels (ʾofannim אוֹפַנִּים) of Ezek 1:15–21 .

4. Relationship to early Old Testament literature

Angels basically fulfill the functions already encountered in the pre-exilic literature. They are created beings (Neh 9:6; 4 Ezra 6:41; Jub. 2:2) who accompany travelers (Tob 5:17–22; 6:1), protect God’s people (2 Macc 11:6; Ep Jer 1:7; 1QHa XVI, 11–12) and individuals (Jub. 35:17; 2 Macc 10:29–30), and strengthen those overwhelmed at their presence (Dan 8:16–18; 4 Ezra 5:15; 10:30; 1 En. 14:13–14, 24–25; 2 En. 21:3; compare Ezek 2:2; 3:24). They are innumerable (4 Ezra 6:3; 2 Bar. 48:10; 56:14; 1 En. 1:9), the host of heaven (Neh 9:6; Sir 17:32; Pr. Man. 1:15; 1QHa XI, 35; 1 En. 104:6; 1QM XII, 7) and holy ones (Tob 11:14; 3 Macc 2:2; Sir 45:2; 42:17; Wis 3:9; 1 En. 81:5; 1QS XI, 8), who praise God (Tob 8:15), and surround the divine throne (1 En. 14:8–25). They serve as guides and interpreters in apocalypses (Dan 9:21–22; 4 Ezra 2:44–48; 10:28–40; 1 En. 17:1; 19:1; 72:1). The destruction of the Assyrian army is recalled (Sir 48:21; 1 Macc 7:41; 2 Kgs 19:35), and angelic help can be invoked in battle (2 Macc 11:6). Angels on horseback ride against Apollonius, enemy of the Jerusalem Temple (4 Macc 4:10; Deut 33:2–3; 2 Kgs 2:12). God the warrior comes with innumerable angels to bring final judgment on the wicked (1 En. 1:3–9).

However, elaboration of earlier ideas also occurred. The teaching function encountered in Ezek 8–9; 40–48 is extensive in 1 Enoch. Uriel teaches Enoch about the true solar calendar (1 En. 72:1; 74:2; 82:7). Angels are now directly involved in the functioning of the whole cosmos, controlling the luminaries under their leader, Uriel (1 En. 79:6), guiding the stars (1 En. 80:1), and managing the seasons, months, and days (1 En. 82:11) and natural phenomena generally (Jub. 2:2; 4 Ezra 8:22; 1 En. 60:17–21; 1QHa IX 6–13). In earlier writings, Yahweh controlled the heavenly bodies (Job 9:7; Isa 40:26), but now angels have delegated responsibility in running the universe, while the earlier belief about angels as national patrons (4Q37 XII, 14 and LXX) is elaborated to explain Israel’s great suffering at the hands of seventy angels (1 En. 85–90).

Angels are mediators, not just of revelation, but as intercessors with God on behalf of humans (1 En. 9:3; 15:2; 40:6; 99:3; Tob 12:12, 15; T. Dan. 6:2 [Heb. 6:3]; T. Levi 5:6). Such elaboration correlates with an increasing sense of God’s transcendence, evident in the contrast between the earlier account in which Yahweh incites David to number the people (2 Sam 24:1), and the later 1 Chr 21:1 where it is Satan, now personified, who does this.

While it has often been supposed that there has been fundamental influence from outside sources, notably Zoroastrian dualism, this should not be overemphasized. The roots of the later angelology lie in the OT, though the idea of a leading evil angel, Satan, and an angelic host associated with him, seems at least partly attributable to such influence.

5. Naming and rank of angels

Rank among angels is prominent (compare Josh 5:14–15), with many angels bearing personal names. Two traditions developed, one with four archangels, Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Sariel (1 En. 9:1; 10:1, 4, 9, 11; 40:1–10; 1QM IX, 14–16), or Phanuel (1 En. 40:9), or commonly Uriel (Life of Adam and Eve [Greek] 40:2). The other has seven (1 En. 20; 81:5–10; 87:2–3; 90:21–24; Tob 12:15), adding Uriel, Raguel, and Remiel (Jeremiel in 4 Ezra 4:36) in 1 En. 20. The only angels named in the OT are Gabriel (Dan 8:16; 9:21) and Michael, Israel’s prince (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1). First Enoch 82:13–20 has a highly complex list of names.

Qumran texts know the four-archangel tradition (1QM IX, 14–16). Michael is probably identical with “the Prince of Light(s)” (1QS III, 20; CD V 18; 1QM XIII 11) and Melchizedek (11Q13 II, 5–13). Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice has seven chief princes and seven deputies over groups of angels involved in the heavenly worship (4Q403 1 I; 4Q400 3 II, 2).

Leading angels who serve in God’s immediate presence, like a king’s chief ministers, are also called Angels of the Presence (Jub. 1:27, 29; 2:1, 18; T. Levi 3:4–8; T. Jud. 25:2; 1 En. 40:1; Tob 12:15; 1QHa XIV, 12–13; 1Q28b IV, 25–26). The antecedent is the angel in Isa 63:9 who had rescued Israel.

6. Appearance and nature of angels

No longer indistinguishable from humans, angels can be spectacular, radiant like the sun (2 En. 19:1), and frightening to humans (3 Macc 6:18; 4 Ezra 14:3; Jos. Asen. 14:11). Handsome (2 Macc 3:26), dressed in white linen, sometimes with gold belts (Dan 10:5; 12:6; T. Levi 8:2; compare Ezek 9:2–3), they can ride horses with golden bridles (2 Macc 10:29–30). At least some fly (Dan 9:21; 4 Ezra 14:3) and transport humans rapidly over great distances (Bel 1:36). They live forever (1 En. 15:4, 6), have special food (Wis 16:20; 4 Ezra 1:19), and are even thought able to impart immortality to humans (Jos. Asen. 16:14). Frequently called spirits in Qumran literature (rukhoth/rukhe; 1QS III, 18; 1QM XII, 9; 1QHa XI, 22–23), they only seem to consume earthly fare when with humans (Tob 12:19; T. Ab. 4:9–10).

7. Good and evil angels

Speculation on Gen 6:1–4 understood the “sons of God” (bene-haʾelohim בְּנֵי הָאֶלֹהִים) as angels who sinned by marrying human women, thereby introducing sin into the world (1 En. 6–36). The fallen angels are called watchers, a term also used elsewhere for unfallen angels (Dan 4:13, 17, 23; 1 En. 12:2–3; Jub. 4:15; 4Q534 II, 16–18), as well as fallen angels (Jub. 4:22; 7:21; T. Naph. 3:5; 1Qap Gen II, 16). The term watcher (ʿir weqaddish [עיר וקדּסשׂ], “holy watcher”; Dan 4:13, Aramaic Dan 4:10) suggests that angels are always alert, being related to Aramaic, ʿwr, to be awake. They are also called stars in another version of their fall (1 En. 86–88). First Enoch 6–36 has two literary strands, with leaders Shemihazah (1 En. 6:3, 7) and Asael (1 En. 8:1–4; 86:1) who introduced devastating evils to the world (1 En. 7–8). The spirits of the watchers’ deceased giant offspring continue to wreak havoc (1 En. 10:9, 15) and are subject to Mastema, a leading evil spirit (Jub. 10:1–14; compare 48:1–2). Here is a clear angelic dualism, involving evil and good angels. Evil spirits are mentioned elsewhere in Jub. 11:4–5; 12:20; T. Sim. 4:9; T. Levi 18:12.

Qumran speculation on angels is markedly dualistic. The Angel of Darkness with his spirits (1QS III, 20–21) opposes the Prince of Lights (1QS III, 20) (the Prince of Light in 1QM XVII, 6–8, and Michael, 1QM XIII, 10), who stands with the sons of light, the faithful sect members, against the angels of destruction led by Belial (1QM I, 1; XIII, 10–12; 1QS II, 4–5; CD V, 17–19) and the humans who belong to them. The Angel of Darkness rules the wicked (1QS III, 20–21). Presumably there is one leader of the evil angels, vaiously called Belial, the Angel of Darkness, Melchiresha (4Q544 2 3; 4Q280 1 2), Mastema (Jub. 10:8; 48:1–2; 1QM XIII, 11), Satan and the devil L.A.E. 9–16). Satan is now a proper name and not just a noun meaning adversary as in earlier texts. Melchizedek, a good angel, corresponds to Melchiresha (11Q13 II, 5, 8, 9, 13).

8. Eschatological functions of angels

Angelic involvement in Israel’s military conflicts (2 Macc 10:29–31) is mirrored in the heavenly realm, as when Israel’s protector, Michael, fights the princes of Egypt and Greece (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1). In the War Scroll, the ultimate heavenly eschatological battle parallels the earthly conflict, as Michael and God’s angels (1QM III, 10; XVII, 6–8) fight alongside the Qumran sect (1QM I 10–11; XII 7–8; XV 13–14), defeating both Belial’s angels and the sect’s human enemies (1QM I 4–6; III, 9; XII, 1–2; XVI, 9). Similar ideas occur elsewhere (1QHa XI, 19–36; 4Q402 4 7–10; 1QS IV 18–19).

In 1 Enoch, the theme of a final assize is highly developed. The fallen watchers are temporarily incarcerated (1 En. 27), and eventually judged (1 En. 90:22, 25; 91:21). Obedient angels execute the final judgment (1 En. 91:15), serving the summons, arresting the fallen angels (1 En. 10:11–13) and acting as prison warders to bring angels and human sinners to judgment (1 En. 90:20–26; 100:4). Angels serve the court by keeping books of evidence (1 En. 10:8; 89:61–63; 90:20; 100:10), speak to God on behalf of the righteous (1 En. 104:1), and execute the sentence on the fallen angels (1 En. 10:13; 90:24–26). Occasionally Qumran texts reflect similar themes, with angels of destruction punishing all people who belong to the Angel of Darkness (1QS IV 11–14; CD II 5–7). Myriads of angels are present in the divine courtroom in Dan 7:10 .

9. Fellowship with angels

One Enochic tradition anticipates that the righteous will eventually live with the angels (1 En. 104:1–6; 2 En. 22). Elsewhere, transformation of the individual into angelic form is considered highly desirable (2 En. 22:7–10; Apoc. Zeph. 8:3). By contrast, the Qumran literature shows an inaugurated eschatology, the community joined in present communion with the angels (1QS XI 5–9; CD XV, 15–17; 1QHa XI, 21–22; XIV, 12–13; XIX, 13; 4Q181 1 II, 1–6; 1QSa (1Q28a) II, 8–9).

C. Angels in the New Testament

Angels are most prominent in the Gospels, Acts, Hebrews, and Revelation, with occasional references in over half of the remaining NT books. The nature and roles of angels correspond closely to ideas already discussed, though the language is much more restrained than that of late Second Temple Judaism. Angels function in relation to God and the establishment of his kingdom, and so are involved with the Messiah and his people, the establishment of the church, and the consummation of God’s purposes in the world. There is no interest in angels for their own sake.

1. New Testament terminology

The Greek angelos is now a term specific for angels, referring to human messengers only in Matt 11:10, and Jas 2:25 . Angels are called holy ones (Jude 14), and stars (Rev 1:16, 20; 2:1; 3:1; the fallen watchers, 1 En. 86–88), and the heavenly host (stratia, army; Luke 2:13; Acts 7:42). Spirits commonly refers to evil spirits (e.g., Matt 10:1; Luke 7:21; Gal 4:3; 1 Tim 4:1; Rev 16:14), but occasionally is used of humans (1 Cor 14:32; Heb 12:23; Rev 22:6) or good angels. Angels are spirits who serve God (Heb 1:14). God is the Father of spirits (Heb 12:9), and has seven spirits, corresponding to the seven Angels of the Presence (Rev 1:4; 3:1; 4:5). The tradition of four archangels may be recalled in Rev 7:1–2 .

Archangel occurs twice (Jude 9; 1 Thess 4:6), and Michael (Jude 9) and Gabriel (Luke 1:19, 26) are the only angels named. Satan (Mark 4:15; Acts 5:3; Rev 20:2) occurs thirty-six times, now designating the leader of the fallen angels, also called Beelzebul (Matt 12:24), the ancient serpent (2 Cor 11:3; Rev 12:9; 20:2), Beliar (2 Cor 6:15 = Belial in Qumran texts), the dragon (Rev. 12:4; 13:2; 16:13; 20:2), and the devil (Matt 4:1; Eph 6:11). Apollyon (or Abaddon, Rev 9:11) is over the bottomless pit. Cherubim are mentioned in connection with the Israelite tabernacle (Heb 9:5), while the living creatures, presumably cherubim, are animal-like creatures protecting the divine throne (fourteen times in Revelation; e.g., Rev 4:6–9; 5:6–8).

In addition, there are rulers (archai [ἀρχαί]; Rom 8:38; Eph 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:15), authorities (exousia [ἐξουσία]; Eph 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:15; 1 Pet 3:22), cosmic powers (kosmokratōr κοσμοκράτωρ) of this present darkness (Eph 6:12), powers (dynamis, 1 Pet 3:22), dominions (kyriotētes [κυριότητες], Col 1:16) and spiritual forces (pneumatika πνευματικός) of evil (Eph 6:12), although there is diversity of opinion about which of these terms refer to spiritual beings.

2. Appearance and nature of angels

Angels are readily distinguishable from humans (Acts 6:15), though they can be entertained without recognition (Heb 13:2). At Jesus’ tomb they are men (Luke 24:4) and a young man (Mark 16:5), clothed in white (Mark 16:5; Matt 8:3–5; John 20:12; 2 Macc 3:26, 33–34; Rev 3:5), with dazzling appearance (Luke 24:4–7). The guards at the tomb (Matt 28:3–5) and the women (Mark 16:5–7; Luke 24:4–5) were terrified by them. Revelation describes angels as strikingly different from humans (Rev 10:1; 18:1), and one angel flies (Rev 14:6).

As created beings (John 1:3; Col 1:15–16), angels belong to God (Luke 2:15; 12:9; Acts 12:23; 27:23; Heb 1:6–7), and should not be worshiped (Col 2:18; Rev 22:8–9). Spiritual beings that serve God (Heb 1:14), with roles in the realm of nature (Rev 7:1–2; 8:7–12; 19:17), angels have delegated authority (Rev 18:1). As heavenly beings (Mark 12:25; 13:32; Luke 2:13, 15; John 1:51; Gal 1:8; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:6, 10), they surround God’s throne as the divine council (Heb 12:22; Rev 3:5; 5:11; 7:11; 8:2) and worship him (Heb 1:6). They are exceedingly numerous (Matt 26:53; Heb 12:22; Jude 14; 1 En. 1:9; Rev 5:11), holy (Mark 8:38; Acts 10:22; Rev 14:10), mighty (2 Pet 2:11; Rev 10:1; 18:21), immortal (Luke 20:36), with no need to reproduce (Matt 22:30). They have their own language (1 Cor 13:1) and limited knowledge (Matt 24:36).

3. Roles in relation to the kingdom of God

In Jewish belief, the Sinai Covenant Law was mediated by angels (Acts 7:38, 53; Gal 3:19; Heb 2:2; Jub. 1:27–29; Josephus, Ant. 15.136). Angels are also important in the inauguration of the New Covenant and the kingdom of God.

a. Angels and the person and work of Jesus. Angels are prominent in the critical events of the birth, temptations, and resurrection of the Messiah. The archangel Gabriel announced the birth of John the Baptist (Luke 1:11, 19), harbinger of the Messiah (Luke 1:13–20) and told Mary (Luke 1:26–38) and Joseph (Matt 1:18–20) of the birth of Jesus, the Messiah (Matt 1:21; Luke 1:31–33). An angel told the shepherds of Jesus’ birth, and then the heavenly host praised God (Luke 2:9–15). An angel warned Joseph to flee to Egypt (Matt 2:13), advising him when to return (Matt 2:19–21) to settle in Nazareth (Matt 2:22–23).

At the outset of Jesus’ messianic ministry (Matt 4:1–11), Satan unsuccessfully sought to divert him from the means appropriate to his mission, urging him to throw himself from the pinnacle of the Temple, given that angels would protect him (Ps 91:11–12). Angels ministered to him at the conclusion of these temptations, perhaps offering food, Jesus having earlier refused to convert stones to bread (Matt 4:11; compare 1 Kgs 19:5–8). In Gethsemane, Jesus could have called on twelve legions of angels, the heavenly army, for assistance (Matt 26:53).

An angel rolled back the stone (Matt 28:22) and announced Jesus’ resurrection to the women (Matt 28:2–7; Mark 16:5–7; Luke 24:4–8). Christ was “seen by angels” (1 Tim 3:16), possibly a reference to their presence at the empty tomb or to his earthly life generally. In Hebrews, angelos occurs twelve times, the majority of which are in Heb 1–2, where the Son’s superiority to angels is argued (Heb 1:4). Angels worship the Son (Heb 1:6), for God’s relationship to the Son is different from theirs (Heb 1:5). He sits at God’s right hand, all his enemies ultimately to be defeated (Heb 1:13), though in the incarnation, the Son is temporarily lower than the angels (Heb 2:9). Angels serve for the sake of those saved through the Son (Heb 1:14).

b. Angels, humans, and the gospel. Angels assist God’s servants in the spread of the gospel. An angel delivered the apostles from jail (Acts 5:19; 12:7–12), reassured Paul when he was endangered at sea (Acts 27:23), instructed and guided Philip so he could preach to the Ethiopian (Acts 8:26), and guided Cornelius to Peter, so the gospel reached the Gentiles (Acts 10:3, 22). Jesus spoke of children’s guardian angels who continually see God’s face (Matt 18:10) and angels carry a poor man into Abraham’s presence at death (Luke 16:22). Paul attributed his “thorn in the flesh” to a “messenger of Satan” (2 Cor 12:7; angelos), perhaps not an evil angel, but one acting by divine permission, since God’s purpose is involved. Angels control nature, at least while God’s servants are marked so they will be safe (Rev 7:1–3; Heb 1:7). In the New Jerusalem, twelve angels protect the redeemed by guarding the gates (Rev 21:12).

Angels observe human affairs (1 Cor 4:9; 1 Tim 5:21), esp. the drama of redemption (1 Pet 1:12), and rejoice whenever sinners repent (Luke 15:7). The saved join the community of heaven’s angels (Heb 12:22). In Revelation, the seven churches have their individual angels (Rev 1:20; 2:1), while Corinthian women at worship require a “symbol of authority” on the head, enigmatically “because of the angels” (1 Cor 11:10). Eventually, humans will judge angels (1 Cor 6:3) and be over the coming world (Heb 2:5).

c. Revelation by angels. Typical of earlier apocalypses, angels feature prominently in Revelation. Angelos occurs 67 times out of 175 in the NT (including Luke 22:43). The seer, transported to heaven and in the company of angels, is shown mysteries (Rev 17:7) and things to come (Rev 1:1; 21:9), learning that angels convey the saints’ prayers to God (Rev 8:3–4), that the redeemed will enjoy bliss with God (Rev 7:2–3) and that the kingdom’s enemies will come under “the Lord and his Christ” (Rev 11:15; 18:1). Angels execute God’s wrath (Rev 15:1), throw Satan into the pit (Rev 20:1–3), and make proclamations (Rev 5:2; 14:6, 8, 9). An angel instructs John to write about the marriage of the Lamb (Rev 19:9) and measures the New Jerusalem, thereby emphasizing the future security of God’s people (Rev 21:9–27).

d. Evil angels. Spiritual dualism involving two unequal powers is a fundamental NT motif. Satan, principal enemy of the kingdom, is thrown down to the earth, along with his angelic retinue (Rev 12:9). He opposes Jesus’ messianic work (Matt 4:1–11; 16:23), working against God’s Spirit (Matt 12:24–29) and snatching the word from the hearers (Mark 4:15). Nevertheless, he is defeated through the disciples’ ministry (Luke 10:18). He inspires people to oppose God (Luke 22:3, 31; John 13:27; Acts 5:3), is followed by unbelievers (Acts 26:18; 1 Tim 5:15; 1 John 3:8, 10; Rev 2:9; 3:9), tempts and deceives (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:11; 11:14; 2 Thess 2:9) and opposes Paul (1 Thess 2:18).

Some angels that had sinned remain imprisoned until the judgment (2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6). But Satan and evil spirits or demons (Matt 10:1; Luke 7:21; Gal 4:3; 1 Tim 4:1; Rev 16:14) will wreak havoc on earth until judgment day (Rev 12:9) and God’s people struggle against these evil spiritual forces (Eph 6:12). Moreover, just as Satan opposes God’s kingdom on earth, his angels fight in the heavenly realm against Michael’s army (Rev 12:3). Ultimately, Satan and his forces will be defeated, consigned eternally to the bottomless pit prepared for them (Rev 20:1–3, 7–10; Matt 25:41).

e. Angels and judgment. An angel effected present judgment by killing Agrippa, who had accepted the crowd’s adulation (Acts 12:20–23). Angels will act significantly in future judgment, a theme encountered already in late Second Temple literature. They will execute God’s wrath (Rev 14:14–20; 15:1; 16:1), witness the condemnation of those consigned to the lake of fire (Rev 14:10), and accompany the Son of Man when he returns in messianic judgment (Matt 16:27; 25:31; 2 Thess 1:7; Dan 7:13). Angelic reapers, like police making arrests, will separate the righteous and wicked (Matt 13:39, 41, 49), gather God’s elect (Matt 24:31), and be present when the Son of Man informs the eschatological court of who has denied him before others (Luke 12:8–9; Rev 3:5). An angel will act as prison warden, executing sentence on Satan (Rev 20:1–3, 7, 10; 20:14–15). Ultimately, all enemies will be defeated, the kingdom of God will be unrivaled, and God will dwell with his people in the New Jerusalem (Rev 21:1–3). See ANGELIC HOST; APOCALYPSE; ARCHANGEL; BELIAL; CHERUB, CHERUBIM; DIVINE ASSEMBLY; GABRIEL; HOLY WAR; HOSTS, HOSTS OF HEAVEN; LORD OF HOSTS; MICHAEL; SATAN; SERAPHS; WATCHER.

Bibliography: Christoph Auffarth and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, eds. The Fall of the Angels (2004); P. Benoit. “Pauline Angelology and Demonology: Reflexions on the Designation of the Heavenly Powers and on the Origin of Angelic Evil according to Paul.” RSB 3 (1983) 1–18; Matthew Black. “The Book of Enoch” or “1 Enoch” (1985); Peter R. Carrell. Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (1997); John J. Collins. “Powers in Heaven: God, Gods, and Angels in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” John J. Collins and Robert A. Kugler, eds. Religion in the Dead Sea Scrolls (2000) 9–28; Maxwell J. Davidson. Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1–36, 72–108 and Sectarian Writings from Qumran (1992); Chris Forbes. “Paul’s Principalities and Powers: Demythologizing Apocalyptic?” JSNT 82 (2001) 61–88; Stephen F. Noll. Angels of Light, Powers of Darkness: Thinking Biblically about Angels, Satan, and Principalities (1998); Christopher Rowland. The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic Judaism and Early Christianity (1982); W. A. VanGemeren. “The Sons of God in Genesis 6:1–4 .” WTJ 43 (1981) 320–48; Walter Wink. Naming the Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament. Vol. 1 (1984).

MAXWELL J. DAVIDSON

Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia

ANGELIC HOST [צָבָא tsavaʾ; στρατιᾶς stratias]. The Hebrew and Greek words mean army (Num 1:3; Deut 24:5), and the translation host, suggested by the image of many soldiers, designates both the stars (Deut 4:19; Neh 9:6; Ps 148:3–4; Acts 7:42) and the angels who surround God’s throne (Deut 33:2; 1 Kgs 22:19; Ps 148:2; 4 Ezra 6:3; Luke 2:13), praising him (Pss 29:1, 89:5; Heb 6; 148:2; Heb 1:6; 1QHa XI, 21–23; Rev 5:11; 7:11).

As Yahweh’s council, the angelic host is analogous to an ancient Near Eastern royal court, and functions in judgment (Dan 7:10; 1 En. 1:9; Jude 14). Micaiah saw Yahweh enthroned, consulting his council (1 Kgs 22:19 //2 Chr 18:18). Prophets ought to learn from it (Jer 23:18–22). Yahweh is praised “in the assembly of the holy ones” (biqhal qedhoshim [בִּקְהַל קְדֹשִׁים]; Ps 89:5), feared “in the council of the holy ones” (besodh qedhoshim [בְּסוֹד קדֹשִׁים]; Ps 89:7; Heb 8), and pronounces judgment “in the divine council” (baʿadhath ʾel [בַּעֲדַת אֵל]; compare 1QHa XI 21–22) among “the gods” (ʾelohim [אֱלֹהִים]; Ps 82:1).

Early Israel saw Yahweh as head of its armies (1 Sam 17:45; 1 Sam 15:2). However, Yahweh is also over the angelic army (Deut 33:2–3; 2 Kgs 6:17; Ps 103:20–21). Jacob, met by angels, declared the place God’s camp (Gen 32:1–2), while the commander of Yahweh’s army (sar tsevaʾ yhwh צְבָא יהוָה שַׂר) confronted Joshua (Josh 5:14–15).

An angel announced the Savior’s advent to the shepherds. Then a “multitude of the heavenly host” (plēthos stratias ouraniou [πλῆθος στρατιᾶς οὐρανίου], Luke 2:13–15) appeared from heaven, glorifying God. Their presence anticipated the angelic protection available to the Messiah (Matt 4:6; 26:53).

In the Qumran War Scroll, the angelic host under Michael will fight against Belial and his hosts, mirroring the battle between the sectarians and their enemies (1QM XIII, 10–12). In Revelation, Michael’s angels fight the dragon’s angels in heaven (Rev 12:7–9), throwing them down to earth where they oppose God’s cause. Ultimately, the Word of God, as King of kings, is accompanied by the armies of heaven, and is victorious (Rev 19:13–16). See angel; divine assembly; WARRIOR, DIVINE; satan.

Bibliography: Tremper Longman III and Daniel G. Reid. God Is a Warrior (1995); Patrick D. Miller. The Divine Warrior in Early Israel (1973); E. Theodore Mullen. The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature: The Assembly of the Gods (1980).

MAXWELL J. DAVIDSON

Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia

ANGELIC LITURGY. See SONGS OF THE SABBATH SACRIFICE.

ANGELS OF THE SEVEN CHURCHES [ἄγγελοι τῶν ἑπτὰ ἐκκλησιῶν angeloi tōn hepta ekklēsiōn]. Mentioned only in Rev 1:20 and addressed individually in letters to the churches (Rev 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14), these angels have been identified as guardian angels of the churches and as heavenly personifications of the churches on earth. They have been seen as human leaders, such as bishops, or as messengers sent to John (Rev 1:4), and have been equated to stars (Rev 1:20). Approximately sixty references to angelos (ἄγγελος) in Revelation are to spiritual beings. See ANGEL; REVELATION, BOOK OF.

Bibliography: David E. Aune. Revelation. WBC 52 (1997).

MAXWELL J. DAVIDSON

Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia

NIDB, s.v. “ANGEL ,” n.p.

[Timothy Jenney]

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[Larry Wing]

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